The chromosomes line up.

Bottom right are the sex chromosomes.

We each have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

The way I suspect it will happen is using artificial chromosomes and extra chromosomes, so we go from 46 to 47 or 48.

And on these chromosomes are roughly 25,000 genes.

And we'll come back to chromosomes in a minute.

Potatoes, potatoes have 48 chromosomes. Do you know that?

It is obviously central to the movement of the chromosomes.

The DNA is organized in words, call them genes and chromosomes.

These sausage shaped things are the chromosomes, and we'll focus on them.

This is what you look like. This is one of your chromosomes.

Cell loss, mutations in chromosomes, mutations in the mitochondria and so on.

I mean, why don't we talk about, well, there's chromosomes, and there's genes.

And in that space station we have the genetic material, the chromosomes, within a nucleus.

So our team developed new techniques for actually growing, cloning entire bacterial chromosomes in yeast.

We saw one autistic kid, about five million bases just missing from one of his chromosomes.

Now we're going to rewind and just focus on the chromosomes and look at its structure and describe it.

It's an amazing step forward, but we had a problem because now we had the bacterial chromosomes growing in yeast.

You see here the work of Ben Fry. This is Human vs. Chimps the few chromosomes that distinguish us from chimps.

There's no molecular test, there's no sequencing of genes that was referred to yesterday, there's no fancy looking at the chromosomes.

It reassembles its genome after this radiation burst in about 12 to 24 hours, after its chromosomes are literally blown apart.

And we thought this would be a great test bed for learning how to get chromosomes out of yeast and transplant them.

A haploid genome we actually have two copies of all of our chromosomes a haploid genome is around 3.2 billion nucleotides in length.

And perhaps because of its size, a group of people all, by the way, with Y chromosomes decided they would want to sequence it.

And we knew, once that worked, that we actually had a chance if we could make the synthetic chromosomes to do the same with those.

And Schrodinger said the essence was information present in our chromosomes, and it had to be present on a molecule. I'd never really thought of molecules before.

But what we're going to focus on is this red region I've labeled it red here and it's the interface between the dynamic scaffolding and the chromosomes.

Look These genomes, these 23 chromosomes, they don't in any way represent the quality of our relationships or the nature of our society at least not yet.

We had two teams working in parallel one team on the chemistry, and the other on trying to be able to transplant entire chromosomes to get new cells.

It broadcasts through chemical signals telling the rest of the cell when it's ready, when it feels that everything is aligned and ready to go for the separation of the chromosomes.

You know chromosomes, but this was a molecule, and somehow all the information was probably present in some digital form. And there was the big question of, how did you copy the information?

Every cell in your body (except mature red blood cells) there are about 50 trillion in an adult contains copies of your DNA, which are coiled up tightly to form 46 separate bundles called chromosomes. These chromosomes are stored in the core of the cell (nucleus), and there are 22 matching pairs, one of each pair from each of your biological parents, plus an X chromosome from your mother and either an X or Y chromosome from your father

Every cell in your body (except mature red blood cells) there are about 50 trillion in an adult contains copies of your DNA, which are coiled up tightly to form 46 separate bundles called chromosomes. These chromosomes are stored in the core of the cell (nucleus), and there are 22 matching pairs, one of each pair from each of your biological parents, plus an X chromosome from your mother and either an X or Y chromosome from your father XX makes you a girl and XY a boy.

As cell division begins the nucleus disintegrates, the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell and those special proteins undergo a three dimensional sequence whereby they attach and they literally click into place end on end to form chains.

And sitting next to that water in the cores was this little Deinococcus radiodurans, doing a backstroke, having its chromosomes blown apart every day, six, seven times, restitching them, living in about 200 times the radiation that would kill you.

And this was Maurice Wilkins. He was trained as a physicist, and after the war he wanted to do biophysics, and he picked DNA because DNA had been determined at the Rockefeller Institute to possibly be the genetic molecules on the chromosomes.

But before doing that, I just briefly want to remind you about what you already know that our genomes, our genetic material, are stored in almost all cells in our bodies in chromosomes in the form of DNA, which is this famous double helical molecule.

Within a short while, I think there's going to be a new field called Combinatorial Genomics, because with these new synthesis capabilities, these vast gene array repertoires and the homologous recombination, we think we can design a robot to make maybe a million different chromosomes a day.

Genetically modified mice either lack a specific gene or gene pair (knock out mice) or carry a piece of foreign DNA integrated into their own chromosomes (transgenic mice), and are used to deduce the functions of particular genes. Studies are beginning to show that an animal s environmental conditions can completely change the results of genetic studies.

Turner syndrome, a chromosomal abnormality in which all or part of one of the sex chromosomes is absent, manifests itself in several ways. These include characteristic physical abnormalities (most often non functioning ovaries, which results in the absence of menstrual cycles and sterility) and various other health problems, such as congenital heart disease, low thyroid hormone levels, and autoimmune diseases.